Introduction:

• After death of Mohammed Ghori there were many contenders for throne, out of which Qutb-ud-din Aibak ascended throne and started slave dynasty rule.
• The Muslim invasions into India had ultimately resulted in the establishment of Delhi Sultanate which existed from A.D. 1206 to 1526.
• Five different dynasties – the Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyids and Lodis – ruled under the Delhi Sultanate

• Slave Dynasty (1206-1290)
• Khalji Dynasty (1290-1320)
• Thuglaq Dynasty (1320-1414)
• Sayeed Dynasty (1414-1451)
• Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)
• First three dynasties belonged to Turkish race.
• Sayeeds were Arabs and they proclaimed their descedency from Prophet Mohammed.
• Lodis were Afghans.
• Most number of Sultans were from first dynasty
• Least number of Sultans from Lodi dynasty.
• Thuglaqs ruled for long time and Khalji ruled for short time.
• Thuglaqs ruled vast territory.
• Sayeeds ruled least territory.

Slave Dynasty (1206-1290AD)

Political history:

1. Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206-1210):

• Aibak was slave of Mohammedd Ghori.
• In Arabic language slave means Mumluk.Hence dynasty established by Qutbuddin Aibak is called slave dynasty or mumluk dynasty.
• He tried for internal consolidation only.
• His rule was for only four years.
• He constructed Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque in Delhi in commeroation of Islam’s victory in India.
• He constructed Adhai din ka-Jhompra mosque in Ajmer.
• He started the construction of Qutub minar , dedicated to sufi saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bhaktiyar kaki.

2. Iltutmish (1210-1236):

• His original name was Samshuddin Iliyas.
• He was son in law of Qutbuddin Aibak.
• His mongol policy saved India from attack of Chengis Khan.
• He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi.
• He completed the construction of the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque and the Qutb Minar.
• He started feudalistic system Iqtha/ iqthadari
• He created pact of fourty muslim nobels as
• He started coinage system of Delhi Sultanate
  • Tanka- silver coin
  • Biranz- bronze coin
  • Jittal- copper coin
• He nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor.

3. Razia Sultana (1236-40):

• Raziya ascended the throne of Delhi by removing her brother Ruknuddin Feroz.
• First muslim women ruler in Indian history.
• She appointed an African(absynnian) slave Yakuth as incharge of cavalary.
• Her rule created differences with Chahalgani (40 nobels)
• She married Altuniya (governor of Bhatinda).
• Later both Razia and Altuniya were killed by coup of Chalghani.

4. Nasiruddin (1246-66):

• After the death of Razia, Chalghani(40 nobels) became powerfull.
• However, after six-year Balban succeeded in putting Nasiruddin Mahmud, a younger son of Iltutmish, as Sultan.
• Nasiruddin was interested in philosophy, he was inefficient to rule.
• He was dethroned by his prime minister Balban.

5. Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-86): 

• Balban was greatest in slave dynasty
• He aboilished Chahalghani .
• He knew that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called the Forty(chahalghani).
• He was convinced that only by enhancing the power and authority of the monarchy he could face the problems.
• According to Balban the Sultan was God’s shadow on earth and the recipient of divine grace.
• Balban introduced Persian customs and traditions such as sizda, paibas(kissing feet of sultan) , jamnibas(kissing hands), Naurauz( Persian new year).
• He established defence department known as Diwan-i-Ariz.
• Balabn took severe action on robbers and dacoits and made roads of Delhi safe to travel.

• Balban dealt Mongol issue with blood and iron policy.
• He strengthened western frontiers.
• He sent his son Mahamud to fight against Mongols on western frontiers.
• Mahamud died fighting with Mongols.
• Saddened by this tragedy, Balban fell ill and died in 1286.
• After his death kalimullah and Qaimus became sultan.
• Qaiqubad/Kaiqubad was the last sultan in slave dynasty.
• After few year Qaiqubad became paralytic.
• He was removed from throne by Jalaluddin khalji.

Khaljis:

1. Jalaluddinn Khalji (1290-96):

• Jalaluddin khalji was Turk, but settled in Afghanistan.
• Jalal-ud-din won many battles and even in old age he marched out against the Mongol hordes and successfully halted their entry into India (1292).
• He gave his second daughter to Mongol leader Ulugh khan in marriage.
• Alauddin Khalji was son in law (also nephew) of Jalaluddin. Alauddin was governor of Kara.
• Alauddin invaded Devagiri kingdom and procured lot of wealth.
• Devagiri was first south Indian state to receive Islamic invasion.
• Later Alauddin murdered his uncle Jalaluddin and ascended the throne.

2. Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316):

• Alauddin was the most imperialistic sultan.
• His military expeditions were
  • Devagiri (1296, 1307, 1314),
  • Gujarat (1299–1300),
  • Ranthambhor (1301),
  • Chittor (1303) and
  • Malwa (1305)
• He defeated Waghela karnadeva of Gujrat and married his wife, Kamaladevi.
• For the sake of Rani Padmini Alauddin attacked Chittore.
• Chittore was captured but Padmini committed Jauhar.
• Alauddin’s Chittore campaign was described in the book Padmavath written by Malik Muhammed Jayasi.

• He framed regulations to control the nobles.
• Malik Kafur, basically an eununch became chief commander of
• Malik kafur started south Indian campaign. He defeated
  • Ramachandradeva- Devagiri
  • Prathaprudradeva- Kakatiya
  • Veera Bhallala 3 – Hoysala
  • Veera and Sundara – Pandya
• Malik kafur erected victory pillar in Rameswaram.
• Alauddin inscribed the title sikandar-e-saini on his coins (sikandar means Alexander)
• Ala-ud-din nominated his eldest son Khizr Khan, as his successor.
• However, Ala-ud-din’s confdant at that time was Malik Kafur.
• So, Malik Kafur himself assumed the authority of the government.
• But Kafur’s rule lasted only thirty-fve days as he was assassinated by hostile nobles.
• After the death of Malik kafur Alauddin’s son Qutbuddin Mubarak came to power.
• During the times of Qutbuddin Devagiri Yadava kingdom was annexed into Delhi sultanate.
• Qutbuddin was murdered by his prime minister Nasiruddin Khushru shah, who became the last sultan in Khalji dynasty.
• Later kushru shah was dethroned by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in the year 1320.

Administrative Reforms: 

• Alauddin was strong and efficient ruler.
• He set up a strong central government.
• He believed in theory of divine right.
• He seperated religion from politics.
• He took various measures for prevention of rebellions, such as restricting matrimonial alliance within nobels, prohibiting secret meetings and parties, appointing spies to keep eye on them and preventing the interference of ulemas in administration.

Market Reforms:

• Ala-ud-din was the frst Sultan to pay his soldiers in cash.
• As the soldiers were paid less, the prices had to be monitored and controlled.
• Moreover, Ala-ud-din had to maintain a huge standing army.
• In order to restrict prices of essential commodities, Ala-ud-din set up an elaborate intelligence network to collect information on black-marketing and hoarding.
• Shahana-i-mandi was the incharge of markets, who kept eye on prices of essential commodities.

Military Reforms:

• Alauddin maintained strong and huge standing army.
• He introduced the system of branding of horses (dagh) and maintenance of detailed register of soldiers to prevent false musters and corrupt practices.
• He paid the salaries in cash.
• Ariz-i-Mumalik was in charge of appointment of soldiers.

Revenue Reforms:

• Alauddin created separate department for revenue as Diwan-i- Mustkharaj.
• He introduced scientific method for land measurement for the assessment land revenue
• Jaziya was imposed on non-muslims.
• He imposed heavy taxes on sardars, jagirdars and ulemas.

Monuments:

• Alauddin constructed siri city and Alai darwaja.

Tughlaqs:

1. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-25):

• Ghiyasuddin Tughlak founded Thuglaq dynasty in 1320
• He added Tughlaqabad city to Delhi.
• He replaced men with horses in courier system.
• He started Dawk chowkies.
• His son prince Jaunakhan defeated Prataparudradeva of Kakatiyas and annexed the kingdom in 1323.
• Ghiyasuddin died accidently in 1325AD.
• Jauna ascended the throne and took the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

2. Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-51):

• Muhammad bin Tughlalq was the most controversial personality in medieval Indian history.
• He was a learned, cultured and talented prince but gained a reputation of being merciless, cruel and unjust.
• He was very tolerant in religious matters.
• His innovative reforms brought him bad name, as they were not executed properly.
• During the time of Muhammad bin Tughlaq Vijaynagar(1336) and Bahamani(1347) emerged.
• Ibn Batuta, a Morocan traveller visited Tughlaq.
• He recorded his observation in his book Qitab-ul-Rihla. 
• Later he was sent to china as ambassador of Tughlaq.
• He added jahanpanah city to Delhi.

His innovative experiments are as follows

Token currency:

Muhammad Tughlak orders his brass coins to pass for silver, A.D. 1330

• He introduced token currency or copper coins.
• His main aim was to save precious metals like gold and silver and introduce more money in circulation.
• For this reason copper coins were issued which had same value as silver tanka.
• But, Minting the copper coin was not retained as monopoly of government.
• The goldsmiths began to forge the token coins on a large scale. Soon the new coins were not accepted in the markets.
• Finally,the sultan stopped the circulation of token currency and promised to exchange silver coins for the copper coins.
• Many people exchanged the new coins but the treasury became empty.

Transfer of capital:

• To safeguard the capital from Mongol invasion and to have better control over south India, sultan decided to shift capital from Delhi to Dadagiri (Daulatabad).
• He desired to shift the entire population. Barani says “not a cat or a dag was left”.
• The reason for the move were very practical, but the method adopted was impractical.
• Entire population was made to travel around 1500km to Daulatabad.
• Many people died during the rigorous journey in the summer.
• After two years, the Sultan abandoned Daulatabad and asked them to return to Delhi.

Increase in taxes:

• The area between Ganga Yamuna doab was very fertile, hence sultan decided to rise tax so as to enhance the revenues of his empire.
• Although it was practical decision the tax hike was too steep and introduced during a time of no rainfall.

Agricultural reforms:

• He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans for
  cultivation) were given to the farmers to buy seed and to extend cultivation.
• A separate department for agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi
  was established.
• To curb the rebellion of Taghi, Tughlaq entered into Sindh desert and died due to sunstroke at Thatta in 1351 AD.

3. Firoz shah Tughlaq (1351-89):

• Born in 1309 and ascended the throne of Delhi after the demise of his cousin Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
• He started the imposition of Jaziy
• He destructed Jwalamukhi temple.
• He protected sanskrit scriptures and started their translation into persian.
• He was the first to link rivers and provide irrigation with the help of four canals.
• He imposed water cess haq-i-shrib.
• The British called him the ‘father of the irrigation department’ because of the many gardens and canals that he built.
• He established the Diwan-i-Khairat — office for charity.
• He established the Diwan-i-Bundagan — department of slave
• He established Sarais (rest house) for the benefits of merchants and other travellers
• He adopted the Iqtadari framework.
• Established four new towns, Firozabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar.
• He established hospitals known as Darul-Shifa, Bimaristan or Shifa Khana.
• Because of all these, he was called as Sultan of constructions.
• Firoz shah died 1388. After his death Muhammad shah ascended the throne.
• During rule of Muhammad shah Timur invaded and ruined Delhi. (1398)

• Turkish Timur, who could claim a blood relationship with the 12thcentury great Mongol Chengiz Khan, ransacked Delhi virtually without any opposition.
• On hearing the news of arrival of Timur, Sultan Muhammd shah fled Delhi.
• Timur also took Indian artisans such as masons, stone cutters, carpenters whom he engaged for raising buildings in his capital Samarkhand.
• Nasir-ud-din Muhammad shah managed to rule up to 1412.
• Then the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled the declining empire from Delhi till 1526.

Sayyids (1414-1451) AD:

• Timur appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan.
• He captured Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty in 1414.
• Kzhir Khan is succeeded by Mubarak shah and Muhammad Shah.
• Muhammad Shah is succeeded by Allam Shah.
• Allam Shah was philosopher.
• He voluntarily abducted throne to Bahalul Lodi and led peaceful life in small town outside Delhi.
• Bahalul Lodi started Lodi dynastic rule.

Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526) AD:

• Bahalul Lodi was founder of Lodi dynasty.
• Lodis were originally from Afghanasitan.
• Bahalul lodi is succeeded by Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517).
• He was greatest in this dynasty.
• He was contemporary to bhakti saint Kabirdas.
• He tortured Kabirdas.
• He constructed Agra city and shifted the capital from Delhi to Agra in 1504.
• He destroyed many Hindu temples and imposed many restrictions on the Hindus.
• Sikandar Lodi was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Lodi.
• He was not able administrator as his father.
• He had differences with nobels, governors.
• His close relatives Allam khan Lodi and Daulat Khan Lodi invited Babar to invade India.
• Mewar ruler Rana Sanga also invited Babar to Invade India.
• Krishnadevraya was emperor of Vijayanagara in southern India during this time.
• Babar defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat in 1526 AD.
• Ibrahim Lodi was the last sultan in Delhi sultanate.
• Babar started Mughal rule in India from 1526AD

Administration During Delhi Sultanate Period:

• With the establishment of the Delhi sultanate a new ruling class emerged in India.
• This new class introduced a new administrative system.
• During the Sultanate period the administrative apparatus was headed by the Sultan who was helped by various nobles.
• There were various other offices along with the office of the Sultan.
• Theoretically, there was a council of Ministers Majlis-i-Khalwat to assist the Sultan.
• Sultanate administration is called as Turko-Afghan setup in Indian environment.
• The Sultans considered themselves as representatives of the Caliph.
• Iltutmish was the first sultan to receive recognition letter from Caliph.
• Delhi sultanate was neither a theocratic state nor a secular state.
• It was depended on ruler.
• Mullahs were interpreters of shariyath.
• Qajis were executors of Shariyath.

Economy During Delhi Sultanate Period:

Land revenue was major source of income for administration.

• The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue, and sometimes even one half of the produce.
• Agriculture formed the occupation of the bulk of the people.
• The peasants produced a large variety of food crops, cash crops, fruits, vegetables and spices.
• They practiced advanced agricultural techniques such as crop rotation, double cropping, three crop harvesting, fruit grafting etc.
• Various types of artificial water lifting devices were also used for this purpose.
• The Persian wheel was the most advanced water lifting device of this period.
• During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained momentum.
• Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated for smooth transport and communication.
• Particularly the royal roads were kept in good shape.
• Sarais or rest houses on the highways were maintained for the convenience of the travelers.
• Cotton textile and silk industry flourished in this period.
• Paper-making technology evolved by the Chinese and learnt by the Arabs was introduced in India during the rule of the Delhi Sultans.
• Craft production was organized in villages as well as qasbas. There also existed imperial
• These karkhanas were part of the royal establishment.
• These units produced commodities for the consumption of the royal household and the court, Generally, expensive and luxury items were produced here.
• In the field of commerce India had trade links with contemporary central Asia, China, South-east Asia and Europe, etc…

4. Literature and Languages during Delhi Sultanate:

• With the establishment of the Delhi sultanate a new language and literary style was introduced into the sub-continent.
• Persian became the official language of Delhi sultanate.
• The development of Persian literature in the sub-continent entered a new era in the writings of Amir Khusrau.
• The court chronicles were an important feature of the literature during the period of the Delhi Sultanate
• Ziauddin Barani made the most important contribution to Persian literature during this period.
• The Tarikh-I Firozshahi and the Fatwa-I Jahandari are his important works.
• Ziauddin Barani was bitter critic of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
• Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-iNasari, a general history of Muslim dynasties
• up to 1260.
• Abu backer’s Chachanamh is the first geographical treatise deals with conquest of sindh
• During this period there were many works that were translated into Persian.
• The Tuti Nama (book of the parrot) by Zia Nakshabi was the first Persian translation of Sanskrit stories
• A new language Urdu emerged during 14th
• The growth in regional languages like Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi and Telugu was a very significant development.

Music during Delhi Sultanate

• The important phase in the development of music during this period belongs to the time of Amir Khusrau.
  • Amir kusrau was the first to describe Kashmir as Eden on earth.
  • He proclaimed himself as tuti-i-hind or parrot of India.
  • He was contemporary of Jalaluddin Khalji, Alauddin Khalji, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
  • He witnessed rule of eight sultans.
• It is during this period that the qawwali style is said to have developed.
• He is also credited for the development of many modern ragas like aiman, gora and sanam.

• He is credited with the creation of a new musical instrument, the sitar that was a combination of the Indian vina and the Iranian tambura.
• New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced during this period
• Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was a great lover of music.
• He encouraged the composition of a great musical work called Man Kautuhal.

Architecture during Delhi Sultanates:

• New architectural forms and styles were introduced in India during the medieval period.
• The synthesisof Indian and Islamic architectural features led to emergence of Indo-islamic architecture.
• The arch and domewere new architectural additions of the period.
• The use of lime-mortarin the construction of buildings and houses altered the building techniques
• The development of the true archwas important feature of the architectural style of the period.
• In the beginning, they converted temples and other structures demolished into mosques.
• For example, the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque near Qutub Minarin Delhi was built by using the materials obtained from destroying many Hindu and Jain temples.
• With the arrival of artisans from West Asia the arch and dome began to show up with precision and perfection.
• Gradually local artisans also acquired the skill.
• The tomb of Balban was adorned with the first true archand the Alai Darwaza built by Alaud-din Khalji as a gateway to the Quwwatul-Islam Mosque is adorned with the first true dome.
• Tughlaqs went for introduction of innovative features in architecture also, such as

• • “batter” or sloping walls
  • Use of stone rubble as the principle building material
  • A new type of arch called the four centred arch
  • The emergence of the pointed dome
  • The introduction of an octagonal plan of tomb building.
• Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq added Tughlaqabad to Delhi.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq added Jahanpanha to Delhi
• Firoz shah Tughlaq added Ferozabad to Delhi.
• Muhammad bin Tughlaq built the tomb of Ghyasuddin on a high platform.
• After Tughlaqs Sikander Lodi constructed Jama maszid in Agra, it is the first structure in middle of garden.
• Later, structures in the middle of garden became an essential feature in Mughal style.