MEANING AND TYPES

Political parties are voluntary associations or organised groups of individuals who share the same political views and who try to gain political power through constitutional means and who desire to work for promoting the national interest. There are four types of political parties in the modern democratic states, viz., (i) reactionary parties which cling to the old socio-economic and political institutions; (ii) conservative parties which believe in the status-quo; (iii) liberal parties which aim at reforming the existing institutions; and (iv) radical parties which aim at establishing a new order by overthrowing the existing institutions. In their classification of political parties on the basis of ideologies, the political scientists have placed the radical parties on the left and the liberal parties in the centre and reactionary and conservative parties on the right. In other words, they are described as the leftist parties, centrist parties and the rightist parties. In India, the CPI and CPM are the examples of leftist parties, the Congress of centrist parties and the BJP is an example of rightist parties.

There are three kinds of party systems in the world, viz., (i) one party system in which only one ruling party exists and no opposition is permitted, as for example, in the former communist countries like the USSR and other East European countries; (ii) two-party system in which two major parties exists, as for example, in USA and Britain ; and (iii) multi-party system in which there are a number of political parties leading to the formation of coalition governments, as for example, in France, Switzerland and Italy.

PARTY SYSTEM IN INDIA

The Indian party system has the following characteristic features:

Multi-Party System

The continental size of the country, the diversified character of Indian society, the adoption of universal adult franchise, the peculiar type of political process, and other factors have given rise to a large number of political parties. In fact, India has the largest number of political parties in the world. On the eve of sixteenth Lok Sabha general elections (2014), there were 6 national parties, 47 states parties and 1593 registered – unrecognised parties in the country. Further, India has all categories of parties—left parties, centrist parties, right parties, communal parties, non-communal parties and so on. Consequently, the hung Parliaments, hung assemblies and coalition governments have become a common phenomena.

One-Dominant Party System

In spite of the multiparty system, the political scene in India was dominated for a long period by the Congress. Hence, Rajni Kothari, an eminent political analyst, preferred to call the Indian party system as ‘one party dominance system’ or the ‘Congress system’. The dominant position enjoyed by the Congress has been declining since 1967 with the rise of regional parties and other national parties like Janata (1977), Janata Dal (1989) and the BJP (1991) leading to the development of a competitive multi-party system.

Lack of Clear Ideology

Except the BJP and the two communist parties (CPI and CPM), all other parties do not have a clear-cut ideology. They (i.e., all other parties) are ideologically closer to each other. They have a close resemblance in their policies and programmes. Almost every party advocates democracy, secularism, socialism and Gandhism. More than this, every party, including the so-called ideological parties, is guided by only one consideration—power capture. Thus, politics has become issue-based rather than the ideology and pragmatism has replaced the commitment to the principles.

Personality Cult

Quite often, the parties are organised around an eminent leader who becomes more important than the party and its ideology. Parties are known by their leaders rather than by their manifesto. It is a fact that the popularity of the Congress was mainly due to the leadership of Nehru, Indira Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi. Similarly, the AIADMK in Tamil Nadu and TDP in Andhra Pradesh got identified with MG Ramachandran and NT Rama Rao respectively. Interestingly, several parties bear the name of their leader like Biju Janata Dal, Lok Dal (A), Congress (I) and so on. Hence, it is said that “there are political personalities rather than political parties in India”.

Based on Traditional Factors

In the western countries, the political parties are formed on the basis of socioeconomic and political programme. On the other hand, a large number of parties in India are formed on the basis of religion, caste, language, culture, race and so on. For example, Shiv Sena, Muslim League, Hindu Maha Sabha, Akali Dal, Muslim Majlis, Bahujan Samaj Party, Republican Party of India, Gorkha League and so on. These parties work for the promotion of communal and sectional interests and thereby undermine the general public interest.

Emergence of Regional Parties

Another significant feature of the Indian party system is the emergence of a large number of regional parties and their growing role. They have become the ruling parties in various states like BJD in Orissa, DMK or AIADMK in Tamil Nadu, Akali Dal in Punjab, AGP in Assam, National Conference in J&K, JD(U) in Bihar and so on. In the beginning, they were confined to the regional politics only. But, of late, they have come to play a significant role in the national politics due to coalition governments at the Centre. In the 1984 elections, the TDP emerged as the largest opposition party in the Lok Sabha.

Factions and Defections

Factionalism, defections, splits, mergers, fragmentation, polarisation and so on have been an important aspect of the functioning of political parties in India. Lust for power and material considerations have made the politicians to leave their party and join another party or start a new party. The practice of defections gained greater currency after the fourth general elections (1967). This phenomenon caused political instability both at the Centre and in the states and led to disintegration of the parties. Thus, there are two Janata Dals, two TDPs, two DMKs, two Communist Parties, two Congress, three Akali Dals, three Muslim Leagues and so on.

Lack of Effective Opposition

An effective Opposition is very essential for the successful operation of the parliamentary democracy prevalent in India. It checks the autocratic tendencies of the ruling party and provides an alternative government. However, in the last 50 years, an effective, strong, organised and viable national Opposition could never emerge except in flashes. The Opposition parties have no unity and very often adopt mutually conflicting positions with respect to the ruling party. They have failed to play a constructive role in the functioning of the body politic and in the process of nation building.

RECOGNITION OF NATIONAL AND STATE PARTIES

The Election Commission registers political parties for the purpose of elections and grants them recognition as national or state parties on the basis of their poll performance. The other parties are simply declared as registered unrecognised parties.

The recognition granted by the Commission to the parties determines their right to certain privileges like allocation of the party symbols, provision of time for political broadcasts on the state-owned television and radio stations and access to electoral rolls.

Further, the recognized parties need only one proposer for filing the nomination. Also, these parties are allowed to have forty “star campaigners” during the time of elections and the registered–unrecognized parties are allowed to have twenty “star campaigners”. The travel expenses of these star campaigners are not included in the election expenditure of the candidates of their parties.

Every national party is allotted a symbol exclusively reserved for its use throughout the country. Similarly, every state party is allotted a symbol exclusively reserved for its use in the state or states in which it is so recognised. A registered-unrecognised party, on the other hand, can select a symbol from a list of free symbols. In other words, the Commission specifies certain symbols as ‘reserved symbols’ which are meant for the candidates set up by the recognised parties and others as ‘free symbols’ which are meant for other candidates.

Conditions for Recognition as a National Party

At present (2016), a party is recognised as a national party if any of the following conditions is fulfilled:

1. If it secures six per cent of valid votes polled in any four or more states at a general election to the Lok Sabha or to the legislative assembly; and, in addition, it wins four seats in the Lok Sabha from any state or states; or
2. If it wins two per cent of seats in the Lok Sabha at a general election; and these candidates are elected from three states; or
3. If it is recognised as a state party in four states.

Conditions for Recognition as a State Party

At present (2016), a party is recognised as a state party in a state if any of the following conditions is fulfilled:

1. If it secures six per cent of the valid votes polled in the state at a general election to the legislative assembly of the state concerned; and, in addition, it wins 2 seats in the assembly of the state concerned; or
2. If it secures six per cent of the valid votes polled in the state at a general election to the Lok Sabha from the state concerned; and, in addition, it wins 1 seat in the Lok Sabha from the state concerned; or
3. If it wins three per cent of seats in the legislative assembly at a general election to the legislative assembly of the state concerned or 3 seats in the assembly, whichever is more; or
4. If it wins 1 seat in the Lok Sabha for every 25 seats or any fraction thereof allotted to the state at a general election to the Lok Sabha from the state concerned; or
5. If it secures eight per cent of the total valid votes polled in the state at a General Election to the Lok Sabha from the state or to the legislative assembly of the state. This condition was added in 2011.

The number of recognised parties keeps on changing on the basis of their performance in the general elections. On the eve of the sixteenth Lok Sabha general elections (2014), there were 6 national parties, 47 state parties and 1593 registered-unrecognised parties in the country. The national parties and state parties are also known as all-India parties and regional parties respectively.

PRESSURE GROUPS

MEANING AND TECHNIQUES

The term ‘pressure group’ originated in the USA. A pressure group is a group of people who are organised actively for promoting and defending their common interest. It is so called as it attempts to bring a change in the public policy by exerting pressure on the government. It acts as a liaison between the government and its members.

The pressure groups are also called interest groups or vested groups. They are different from the political parties in that they neither contest elections nor try to capture political power. They are concerned with specific programmes and issues and their activities are confined to the protection and promotion of the interests of their members by influencing the government.

The pressure groups influence the policy-making and policy implementation in the government through legal and legitimate methods like lobbying, correspondence, publicity, propagandising, petitioning, public debating, maintaining contacts with their legislators and so forth. However, some times they resort to illegitimate and illegal methods like strikes, violent activities and corruption which damages public interest and administrative integrity.

According to Odegard, pressure groups resort to three different techniques in securing their purposes. First, they can try to place in public office persons who are favourably disposed towards the interests they seeks to promote. This technique may be labelled electioneering. Second, they can try to persuade public officers, whether they are initially favourably disposed toward them or not, to adopt and enforce the policies that they think will prove most beneficial to their interests. This technique may be labelled lobbying. Third, they can try to influence public opinion and thereby gain an indirect influence over government, since the government in a democracy is substantially affected by public opinion. This technique may be labelled propagandizing

PRESSURE GROUPS IN INDIA

A large number of pressure groups exist in India. But, they are not developed to the same extent as in the US or the western countries like Britain, France, Germany and so on. The pressure groups in India can be broadly classified into the following categories:

1. Business Groups

The business groups include a large number of industrial and commercial bodies. They are the most sophisticated, the most powerful and the largest of all pressure groups in India. They include: (i) Federation of Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (FICCI); major constituents are the Indian Merchants Chamber of Bombay, Indian Merchants Chamber of Calcutta and South Indian Chamber of Commerce of Madras. It broadly represents major industrial and trading interests. (ii) Associated Chamber of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM); major constituents are the Bengal Chamber of Commerce of Calcutta and Central Commercial Organisation of Delhi. ASSOCHAM represents foreign British capital. (iii) Federation of All India Foodgrain Dealers Association (FAIFDA). FAIFDA is the sole representative of the grain dealers. (iv) All-India Manufacturers Organisation (AIMO). AIMO raises the concerns of the medium-sized industry.

2. Trade Unions

The trade unions voice the demands of the industrial workers. They are also known as labour groups. A peculiar feature of trade unions in India is that they are associated either directly or indirectly with different political parties. They include: (i) All-India Trade Union Congress (AITUC)—affiliated to CPI; (ii) Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC)—affiliated to the Congress (I); (iii) Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS)—affiliated to the Socialists; (iv) Centre of Indian Trade Unions (CITU)—affiliated to the CPM; (v) Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS)—affiliated to the BJP; (vi) All India Central Council of Trade Unions (Communist Party of India (Marxist-Leninist) Liberation); (vii) All India United Trade Union Centre (Socialist Unity Centre of India (Communist)); (viii) New Trade Union Initiative (Independent from political parties, but left); (ix) Labour Progressive Federation (Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam); (x) Trade Union Coordination Committee (All India Forward Bloc); (xi) United Trade Union Congress (Revolutionary Socialist Party); (xii) All India Centre of Trade Unions (Marxist Communist Party of India (United)); (xiii) Anna Thozhil Sanga Peravai (All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam); (xiv) Bharatiya Kamgar Sena (Shiv Sena); (xv) Hind Mazdoor Kisan Panchayat (Janata Dal (United)); (xvi) Indian Federation of Trade Unions (Communist Party of India MarxistLeninist) New Democracy); (xvii) Indian National Trinamool Trade Union Congress (All India Trinamool Congress); (xviii) Pattali Trade Union (Pattali Makkal Katchi); (ix) Swatantra Thozhilali Union (Indian Union Muslim League); and (xx) Telugu Nadu Trade Union Council (Telugu Desam Party). First Trade Union in India: All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was founded in 1920 with Lala Lajpat Rai as its first president. Upto 1945, Congressmen, Socialists and Communists worked in the AITUC which was the central trade union organisation of workers of India. Subsequently, the trade union movement got split on political lines.

3. Agrarian Groups

The agrarian groups represent the farmers and the agricultural labour class. They include: (i) Bhartiya Kisan Union (under the leadership of Mahendra Singh Tikait, in the wheat belt of North India) (ii) All India Kisan Sabha (the oldest and the largest agrarian group) (iii) Revolutionary Peasants Convention (organised by the CPM in 1967 which gave birth to the Naxalbari Movement) (iv) Bhartiya Kisan Sangh (Gujarat) (v) R V Sangham (led by C N Naidu in Tamil Nadu) (vi) Shetkhari Sanghatana (led by Sharad Joshi in Maharashtra) (vii) Hind Kisan Panchayat (controlled by the Socialists) (viii) All-India Kisan Sammelan (led by Raj Narain) (ix) United Kisan Sabha (controlled by the CPM)

4. Professional Associations

These are associations that raise the concerns and demands of doctors, lawyers, journalists and teachers. Despite various restrictions, these associations pressurise the government by various methods including agitations for the improvement of their service conditions. They include: (i) Indian Medical Association (IMA) (ii) Bar Council of India (BCI) (iii) Indian Federation of Working Journalists (IFWJ) (iv) All India Federation of University and College Teachers (AIFUCT)

5. Student Organisations

Various unions have been formed to represent the student community. However, these unions, like the trade unions, are also affiliated to various political parties. These are: (i) Akhila Bhartiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP) (affiliated to BJP) (ii) All India Students Federation (AISF) (affiliated to CPI) (iii) National Students Union of India (NSUI) (affiliated to Congress (I)) (iv) Progressive Students Union (PSU) (affiliated to CPM)

6. Religious Organisations

The organisations based on religion have come to play an important role in Indian politics. They represent the narrow communal interest. They include: (i) Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh (RSS) (ii) Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) (iii) Jamaat-e-Islami (iv) Ittehad-ul-Mussalmeen (v) Anglo-Indian Association (vi) Associations of the Roman Catholics (vii) All-India Conference of Indian Christians (viii) Parsi Central Association (ix) Shiromani Akali Dal “The Shiromani Akali Dal should be regarded as more of a religious pressure group rather than a political party in view of the fact that it has been concerned more with the mission of saving the sikh community from being absorbed into the ocean of hindu society than with fighting for the cause of a sikh homeland”.

7. Caste Groups

Like religion, caste has been an important factor in Indian politics. The competitive politics in many states of the Indian Union is in fact the politics of caste rivalries: Brahmin versus Non-Brahmin in Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra, Rajput versus Jat in Rajasthan, Kamma versus Reddy in Andhra, Ahir versus Jat in Haryana, Baniya Brahmin versus Patidar in Gujarat. Kayastha versus Rajput in Bihar, Nair versus Ezhava in Kerala and Lingayat versus Okkaliga in Karnataka. Some of the caste-based organisations are: (i) Nadar Caste Association in Tamil Nadu (ii) Marwari Association (iii) Harijan Sevak Sangh (iv) Kshatriya Maha Sabha in Gujarat (v) Vanniyakul Kshatriya Sangam (vi) Kayastha Sabha

8. Tribal Organisations

The tribal organisations are active in MP, Chattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal and the North Eastern States of Assam, Manipur, Nagaland and so on. Their demands range from reforms to that of secession from India and some of them are involved in insurgency activities. The tribal organisations include: (i) National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) (ii) Tribal National Volunteers (TNU) in Tripura (iii) People’s Liberation Army in Manipur (iv) All-India Jharkhand (v) Tribal Sangh of Assam (vi) United Mizo Federal Organisation

9. Linguistic Groups

Language has been so important factor in Indian politics that it became the main basis for the reorganisation of states. The language along with caste, religion and tribe have been responsible for the emergence of political parties as well as pressure groups. Some of the linguistic groups are: (i) Tamil Sangh (ii) Anjuman Tarraki-i-Urdu (iii) Andhra Maha Sabha (iv) Hindi Sahitya Sammelan (v) Nagari Pracharani Sabha (vi) Dakshina Bharat Hindi Prachar Sabha

10. Ideology Based Groups

In more recent times, the pressure groups are formed to pursue a particular ideology, i.e., a cause, a principle or a programme. These groups include: (i) Environmental protection groups like Narmada Bachao Andolan, and Chipko Movement (ii) Democratic rights organisations (iii) Civil liberties associations (iv) Gandhi Peace Foundation (v) Woman rights organisations

11. Anomic Groups

Almond and Powell observed: “By anomic pressure groups we mean more or less a spontaneous breakthrough into the political system from the society such as riots, demonstrations, assassinations and the like. The Indian Government and bureaucratic elite, overwhelmed by the problem of economic development and scarcity of resources available to them, inevitably acquires a technocratic and anti-political frame of mind, particularistic demands of whatever kinds are denied legitimacy. As a consequence interest groups are alienated from the political system”. Some of the anomic pressure groups are: (i) All-India Sikh Student’s Federation. (ii) Nava Nirman Samithi of Gujarat. (iii) Naxalite Groups. (iv) Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF). (v) All Assam Student’s Union. (vi) United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA). (vii) Dal Khalsa.

Meaning of Public Opinion

Public opinion is generally understood as the opinion of public, common people or the voice of the people. But public exactly does not mean people. There is no single public. In fact, there are several ‘public’. The total people as a whole do not constitute one single homogeneous public, having similar views or opinion. The public is not a fixed body of individuals. The term ‘public’ means a section of society, sharing common interests. It holds similar views and opinions on matters of public concern.

It is therefore, not necessary that public opinion will be the opinion of all the people. It is not even the opinion of the majority. As there are many publics, there are also different opinions and different problems. Public opinion necessarily reflects diversity of opinion.

It is also important to understand that public opinion is not the opinion of an individual, though he or she may be a highly respected person. It is not a private opinion. It is also not an expert opinion, irrespective of the wisdom of the expert. Public opinion is an organised and considered opinion of a section or many sections of the people on any public issue or concern. It is genuinely both public and opinion. It is neither a propaganda nor a public relations exercise.

Characteristics of Public Opinion

1. Public opinion is not the unanimous opinion but there is a general agreement on the issue.
2. It may change with the circumstances, time and new information.
3. Public opinion is logical and considered view of a section of society.
4. Public opinion necessarily reflects diversity of opinion.
5. There is no fixed territory or area for public opinion.
6. Public opinion ensures democratic communication.

Significance and Role of Public Opinion

Public opinion is considered to be the essential element for successful working of democratic communication in the system. Public Opinion is the expression of the views of citizens. No government can afford to ignore it. A sound and effective public opinion can even shake the structures of dictators. The strength of democratic system lies in respecting the mind power of the people. There should be free and fair interaction of thoughts for solving the collective problems. Public opinion acquires great relevance in realising this democratic goal. It promotes wider awareness and invites citizens to examine issues from different points of view. The significance and role of public opinion can be explained as follows:

(a) Guide to the Government: Public opinion acts as the guide to the government in respect of policy formation. Government functions in general on the basis of mandate received in elections and tries to win over the masses to fulfil the promises made during elections.

(b) Helping in Law Making: Government is always under pressure of public opinion and takes note of the same in formulating laws for the common good. Governmental policies are invariably affected by people’s opinion on various issues. Public opinion helps the government to enact laws in the given situation.

(c) Acts as a Watchdog: Public opinion acts as a watchdog. It controls and checks the government from becoming irresponsible. While criticizing the wrong policies of the government, public opinion always keeps the government alert. Government is always concious of the fact that people would not vote for it or bring it back to power again if it goes against the wishes of the people.

(d) Protects the Rights & Liberties: Public opinion acts as the protector of rights and liberties of citizens. In a democratic country, people have the right to criticize or support the government in their own way. More effective and positive use of this right not only encourages or motivates the government but also keeps the government alive towards the rights and liberties of the people.

(e) Acts as a Powerful Force in International Sphere: – Public opinion has acquired worldwide importance. In fact, international relations are influenced by public opinion. In the age of globalization, the issues like promotion and protection of human rights, environment and discrimination based on race, religion or sex, prevention of child labour, terrorism etc. hold international community answerable to public opinion. Therefore, the governments remain conscious of such international public opinion also. Infact, no democratic government can afford to ignore public opinion.

Formation of Public Opinion

There is no difinite and automatic process for the formation of public opinion. Whenever an issue of public concern emerges, various sections of society express their views. In the process some views receive larger attention and emerge as public opinion. There are informal and formal processes that mould public opinion.

Political Socialisation

Political socialistion is the basic process through which every indivitual is oriented with respect to political issues. A human being lives and grows in family, neighbourhood, friends, the locality and the region. The orientation of attitudes, beliefs and values towards the political system acquire shape in association of their groups. The most influencial in personality formation and character building are the family and the peer group. They provide the basic mould in influencing the ideas and opinions of the individual. The orientation of individuals through this process determines their views and reactions towards political issues.

Press

Democracy at Work The print media includes newspaper, periodicals, pamphlets, journals, leaflets etc. Press or print media supplies the news regarding all political and social happenings in the world. It throws a flood of light on current issues. In fact press is regarded as the watchdog of democracy by carrying the voice of the public to the government. People express their criticism or support in the form of articles, or comments through press. Hence, make the government responsible and answerable. In fact, government also propagates its policies and programmes through media. It tries to highlight its achievements to make public opinion in its favour.

Radio and Television

Electronic media i.e. radio and television act as a mirror of social life. Print media influences only the educated. The electronic media plays an important part in collecting the information and moulding the thoughts of the uneducated masses also.The audio-visual media is used as a powerful means for bringing about social transformation and setting up a new social order free from social evils. It is used to educate the masses on certain sensitive issues like casteism, communalism violence etc. Through radio and television masses communicate their feelings and opinions towards various government policies and programmes.

Cinema

Cinema has been the traditional medium of entertainment and awareness. The cinema caters to the artistic and intellectual needs of the people. It cultivates new ideas and norms in the society on political and social problems. Feature films and documentary films have their natural impact on the thinking of the people. This audio visual method can even influence the illiterates.

Public Meetings

Public meetings or platforms are effective means of moulding public opinion for different social, cultural, intellectual and political activities. They address the public issues and are able to gather huge crowd through lectures, seminars, symposia, workshops and conferences. They try to establish personal and emotional bond with the public and motivate them towards positive and healthy steps.

Political parties and their activities

Political parties formulate and organize public opinion. They are called mobilisers of opinion. Political parties not only make the people aware of various public issues. Their purpose is to make the people politically conscious to think about public problems. Political parties publish journals, pamphlets, leaflets, manifestoes, posters etc. to mould the public opinion in their favour.

Opinion Polls

Opinion polls serve to indicate public opinion at the time of their being taken. They are a very effective way of gathering information about public attitude and opinion on various political, social, cultural, economical etc. matters. They are normally conducted by professional agencies selecting representative samples of population. Of late they are becoming a very useful and popular method to understand and analyse public opinion.

Educational Institutions

They include schools, colleges, literary clubs, study circles, universities and libraries etc. They can mould public opinion to a great extent. The adolescents get easily swayed by the opinion of others. Therefore the right kind of training is very important for this age group. Eminent leaders, scholars and educationists help in moulding their leadership qualities and help in creating public opinion through Debates, Talks, Seminars etc. Various co-curricular activities like Drama, Symposium, Painting/Slogan writing competition etc. also prove very effective in sensitizing the students on important national and international issues. There are certain limitations on the use of public opinion. It is believed that the public takes interest in local and national affairs. The public is reasonably well informed. The public thinks, with reason and logic and arrives at the rational conclusion. The opinion of the public is expressed through the elections/polls. Public opinion always keeps the government on its toes and the alert government makes the laws based on social and moral principles expressed by it. Public opinion is the voice of interested spectators of action. Public opinion reflects the plurality and diversity of opinions. Sometimes it is taken very casually. It is more a matter of interpretation. Fault does not lie with the opinion but with the interpretation. At times, sample may also not be appropriate. In modern mass societies people read, listen and see so much that it is not always easy for them to sift facts from fiction. Hence, it poses a great challenge to people to make intelligent discrimination of news and views. However, the fact remains that public opinion is very effective means of communication between the government and the citizens.

Hindrances in The Formation of Sound Public Opinion

Public opinion will not be a true reflection of the ideas of public until the following hindrances are eradicated :

(a) Indifferent Attitude: Generally, people like to keep themselves away from political activities. They do not take interest in public affairs. Generally they think that their involvement in political decision making is not required. There is a need to change the indifferent attitude and adopt participatory approach. People should be motivated to take interest in the affairs of their own country. People have to be sensitized towards important issues related to unity, integrity and development of the nation.

(b) Illiteracy: Educated and enlightened people are expected to be good voters and citizens. Illiterate people on the other hand, have a limited knowledge and they do not understand the political problems. They are not capable of forming an intelligent and rational opinion and are guided by passion and sentiments. Ignorance born of illiteracy is a curse for social life. A sound public opinion can be formulated only in the environment of knowledge and education.

(c) Poverty: The poor are always isolated from politics. They do not find time to devote their attention to public affairs. They get easily influenced by the tall talks of the political leaders and cast or even sell their votes. The government, non-governmental organisation and pressure groups have to play their effective role. The wide gap between the rich and the poor has to be minimized and the distribution of wealth must be equitable. Sound and healthy public opinion is possible only by alleviating poverty.

(d) Disharmony amongst various castes and communities: The people and political parties, in democracy have to rise above the feelings and emotions of casteism and communalism. They should not divide themselves into narrow walls of religion and sect. Religion and politics should be kept separate. Social harmony in the country would provide a better platform for sound and healthy public opinion.

(e) Free Press: Unbiased, objective and independent press and fearless media play a very significant role in the formation of healthy opinion. Press should not be influenced by religious capitalist or regional interests. Free press should present the authentic and impartial report.

MASS MEDIA

As the largest democracy, India is considered a role model for a large number of developing countries. We have state and central governments elected by the people. We have a government run by our own elected representatives, known as Members of Legistative Assembly (MLAs) in the state and Members of Parliament (MPs) at the centre. Modern democratic governments have the following:

1. A Legislature,e. State Assemblies and Parliament, responsible for framing laws and decide the way we run our affairs.
2. An Executive: The Governor, the Chief Minister and the Ministers who run the state and the President, Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers who run the country.
3. A Judiciary: The Supreme Court, High Courts and other courts which decide whether laws and the constitutional provisions are followed by the elected governments.

These institutions run the government of the country for the welfare and development of all the people. In a democracy, the people should know what the three institutions, namely the Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary are doing for the welfare of the people. These institutions in turn need to know how the people are reacting to what they are doing. The main role of the mass media is to act as a bridge between the people and the government. So, in that sense, media can be considered as the fourth institution in a democracy.

FUNCTIONS AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE MEDIA

Mass media is a tremendous source of information for individuals as well as society. In the previous section, you have learnt about the role of mass media in a democracy. Let us now see how the media perform their functions to bring about changes.

Mass Media Can Help in Change

Using mass media, people’s attitudes and habits can be changed. For example, all of us have mistaken or wrong notions about various disceases like leprosy or HIV/AIDS. Many of us think that by touching people suffering from these diseases we would be infected. You might have heard on radio or watched television programmes or read messages which tell us that by touching an HIV/AIDS patient we do not get infected. Similarly, for eradicating polio there are special programmes and messages disseminated through the media. They inform people about the need for giving polio drops to children and about the day that is declared a ‘polio day.’ Special arrangements are made to give polio drops to as many children as possible on polio day. Change would also mean things for the better. The concept of development of a country is again a matter of change, when old practices and equipment are changed and new, better and more efficient means are being used. The mass media play an important role in communicating this change. By giving the necessary information, and sometimes skills, the media can help bring about this change. You may ask how media can impart skills. A mass media like television can demonstrate and show how things work. You would have seen on television how a certain dish is cooked using modern kitchen equipment.

Mass Media have made the World Smaller and Closer

The speed of media has resulted in bringing people across the world closer. Let us take an example. When you watch a cricket match between India and another country in England, Australia or New Zealand, live on televi- sion, you feel you are part of the crowd in that stadium. Events, happy or sad, happening anywhere can be seen live. Sometimes we feel that the entire world is one big family. You might have heard the term “global village”. It means that the whole world is shrinking and becoming a village. Wherever we go to any part of the world, we see the same products such as soft drinks, television, washing machine, refrigerator etc. and the same type of advertisements. Similarly, the world wide web and internet have brought people and countries much closer.

Mass Media Promotes Distribution of Goods

Mass media are used by the consumer industry to inform people about their products and services through advertising. Without advertising, the public will not know about various products (ranging from soup to oil, television sets to cars) and services (banking, insurance, hospitals etc.) which are available in the market as well as their prices. Thus mass media help the industries and consumers.

MEDIA ETHICS

We have seen how powerful the mass media are. By their very nature media and the media people meaning journalists of the print media, radio and television are quite powerful. So politicians, bureaucrats and the police look at them with apprehension. Generally they do not want to be in the media if the reports are not in their favour. If the media people praise them, they are happy. So by and large people try to be friendly with the media. But for the media this power comes with tremendous responsibility. If they misuse that power to do wrong things or trouble others, people will stop trusting them. Like in any other profession, like law or medicine, the media also need to have a code of ethics or guidelines on what is right or wrong. In the case of lawyers and doctors, there are clear codes of ethics, and anyone who violates the code can be punished, or removed from the profession. But in the case of the mass media there are only a few guidelines and no strict code of conduct. The Press Council of India is one of the organizations which issues guidelines on media ethics.

To keep the fair name of the profession, the media practitioners need to follow certain ethical codes which are listed below:

500. Accuracy: The information provided by media persons in the print media, radio, television and internet has to be accurate. If incorrect or baseless information is given, it can harm the interests of individuals, institutions and the country. For being accurate, media persons have to verify the correctness of their facts. For example, if only 50 people have died in an accident, the media cannot give out the figure as 200 or 500. If a media person writes against anybody or accuses someone of dishonesty, that person should be given an opportunity to give his or her version of the story.
501. Confidentiality: A media person maintains confidentiality of information revealed by various sources.
502. Protection of sources: A source which has provided confidential information should never be revealed. For example if a government official provides information pertaining to his department, media person should not reveal the name of the person in order to protect him from any harm.
503. Right to privacy: A journalist should respect the right of a person to have privacy. That would mean that a journalist should not write about the private life of ordinary citizens.
504. No incitement to violence: Mass media should not motivate or provoke people to indulge in violence or crime. Glorifying violence in writings should also be avoided.
505. No vulgarity or obscenity: Mass Media should not write, display or broadcast anything that is vulgar or obscene.
506. No Communal writing: India is a country where people follow diverse faiths and religions. Our Constitution believes in secularism, which means respect for all faiths and religions. It is easy for the media to create problems between sections with different faiths and religions by writing about them or broadcasting issues which can promote communal problems. There have been several occasions when communal riots and killings have taken place based on media reports. The media has to ensure that it works in the interest of the public.

Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs)

• As defined by the World Bank NGOs refers to not-for-profit organizations that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, or undertake community development.
• These organisations are not a part of the governement, have a legal status and are registered under the specific Act (Societies Registration Act, 1860 in India) of the government.
• The term NGO in India denotes wide spectrum of organisations which may be non-governmental, quasi or semi governmental, voluntary or non-voluntary etc.

In India, based on the law under which they operate and the kind of activities they take up, civil society groups can be classified into following broad categories:

• Registered Societies formed for specific purposes
• Charitable Organizations and Trusts
• Local Stakeholders Groups, Microcredit and Thrift Enterprises, Self Help Groups
• Professional Self-Regulatory Bodies
• Cooperatives
• Bodies without having any formal organizational structure
• Government promoted Third Sector Organizations

Need for NGOs

• Since independence, India has achieved phenomenal economic growth in education, healthcare, poverty alleviation and overall standard of living.
• Issues of exclusion of women, children and marginalized communities in the development process however remains.
• Other adverse consequences of inequitable growth include the spread of Naxalism, recurrent violence for reservations and ever increasing cases of farmer suicides.
• India ranks 130^th in the 2018 Human Development Index rankings. The Global Hunger Index for 2018 indicates that 38.4% of children under five in India are stunted.
• In such an environment civil society plays a key role in raising the concerns of people and ensuring that minorities are not neglected.
• The state requires the constructive and collaborative engagement of the civil society in its various developmental activities and programs.
• Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) acts as the operational arm of the civil society and thus have an important role in the development processes.

Legislations regulating the finances of NGOs

Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act (FCRA), 2010

• Foreign funding of voluntary organizations in India is regulated under FCRA act and is implemented by Ministry of Home Affairs.
• The acts ensure that the recipients of foreign contributions adhere to the stated purpose for which such contribution has been obtained.
• Under the act organisations require to register themselves every five years.

Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999

• Foreign Exchange Management Act (1999) aims to consolidate and amend the law relating to foreign exchange with objective of facilitating external trade and payments and for promoting the orderly development and maintenance of foreign exchange market in India.
• A transaction under FEMA is called a fee or a salary while the same under FCRA is called a grant or a contribution.
  • In 2016, the powers of Ministry of Finance to monitor NGOs were placed under the FEMA. The idea was to bring all NGOs, which receive foreign contributions, under one umbrella for better monitoring and regulations. The step was taken to that ensure only one custodian monitors flow of foreign funds to these organisations.

Constitutional Provisions for NGOs in India

• Article 19(1)(c) on the right to form associations;
• Article 43 which highlights the State’s having an endeavor to promote cooperatives in rural areas;
• Concurrent List in Entry 28 mentions about – Charities and charitable institutions, charitable and religious endowments and religious institutions”.

Role of Non-Governmental Organisations

The Advocacy/Social Safety-Valve Role

• Non-profit organisations play vital role in mobilizing public attention to societal problems and needs.
• They are the principal vehicle through which communities can give voice to their concerns.

Improving government performance

• NGOs can broaden government’s accountability by ensuring government is responsive to citizens at large rather than to narrow sectarian interests.
• They also induce innovation and flexibility in policymaking by bringing their own independent expertise and research teams.
• They enhance the efficiency of delivery of many services at the local level through involvement of residents.
• They also improve policy monitoring and evaluation as Comptroller and auditor general (CAG) takes cognizance of reports and social audits by NGOs while preparing its reports.

The Service Role

• The non-profit sector acts as a flexible mechanism through which people concerned about a social or economic problem can begin to respond.
• It also caters to groups of the population who desire a range of public goods that exceeds what the government or society is willing to support.
• NGOs help in constructive conflict resolution. In the international arena Track II diplomacy (involving non-governmental bodies) plays a crucial role in creating an environment of trust and confidence.

Building Community Participation

• The non-profit organisations offer alternative perspectives; and most importantly, the capacity to conduct a meaningful dialogue with communities, particularly those that are disadvantaged.
• They foster pluralism, diversity and freedom. Many NGOs work to preserve and promote India’s diverse culture. For example SPIC MACAY is a society for promoting Indian classical music and culture amongst youth.

Activities undertaken by NGOs

• Advocacy, Analysis and Awareness Raising – acting as a voice for people both on a representative and self-appointed basis; researching, analyzing and informing the public about issues; mobilizing citizen action through media campaigns and other forms of activism; and lobbying business leaders and policymakers.
• Brokerage – acting as an intermediary between different sectors and groups.
• Conflict resolution – acting as a mediator and facilitator.
• Capacity Building – providing education, training and information.
• Delivery of services – operational delivery of essential humanitarian, development and/or social services.
• Evaluation and Monitoring – serving as a ‘watchdog’ or third party / independent ‘auditor’, invited and uninvited, of government and corporate performance, accountability and transparency.

Issues with NGOs

• Accreditation remains a big challenge as it is very difficult to distinguish whether an organization wants to work for the cause or has been set up only for the purpose of receiving government grants.
• Over dependence on funds from the government dilutes the willingness of NGOs to speak out against the government.
• NGOs have acted as a cover for organized crime in past and are often seen as fronts for fundamentalist causes. Foreign funded NGOs have been responsible for organising agitations and scuttling development projects in India.
• NGOs are often seen as encroaching on centuries-old tradition and culture of the people, and lead to mass protest at times. Ban of Jallikattu, after the PIL by PETA is one such example.

Way Forward

• A National Accreditation Council consisting of academicians, activist, retired bureaucrats should be made to ensure compliance by NGOs.
• There should be better coordination between Ministries of Home Affairs and Finance in terms of monitoring and regulating illicit and unaccounted funds.
• A regulatory mechanism to keep a watch on the financial activities of NGOs and voluntary organizations is the need of the hour.
• Citizens today are keen to play an active role in processes that shape their lives and it is important that their participation in democracy go beyond the ritual of voting and should include promotion of social justice, gender equity, inclusion etc.